Dante's Divine Comedy: Paradiso
Canto VI
The Emperor Justinian of Constantinople is chosen as the mouthpiece for a glorious Roman Empire as Dante concedes that secular and religious elements functioned well during his reign. Justinian moved the seat of the empire from Rome to Byzantium, codified Roman law after converting to Christianity, and here recounts the history of the mighty empire, from its foundation up to the time of Charlemagne. He explains that the souls around him performed noble deeds which were sadly marred by a desire for personal advancement. Now freed from the desire for greater reward, they bask in God's eternal mercy. Among them is Romeo, adviser to Raymond Berenger IV, Count of Provence.
"After that Constantine the eagle turned
Against the course of heaven, which it had followed
Behind the ancient who Lavinia took,[1]
Two hundred years and more the bird of God
In the extreme of Europe held itself,
Near to the mountains whence it issued first;
And under shadow of the sacred plumes
It governed there the world from hand to hand,
And, changing thus, upon mine own alighted.
Caesar I was, and am Justinian,
Who, by the will of primal Love I feel,
Took from the laws the useless and redundant;[2]
And ere unto the work I was attent,
One nature to exist in Christ, not more,
Believed, and with such faith was I contented.
But blessed Agapetus, he who was
The supreme pastor, to the faith sincere
Pointed me out the way by words of his.[3]
Him I believed, and what was his assertion
I now see clearly, even as thou seest
Each contradiction to be false and true.
As soon as with the Church I moved my feet,
God in his grace it pleased with this high task
To inspire me, and I gave me wholly to it,
And to my Belisarius I commended
The arms, to which was heaven's right hand so joined
It was a signal that I should repose.[4]
Now here to the first question terminates
My answer; but the character thereof
Constrains me to continue with a sequel,
In order that thou see with how great reason
Men move against the standard sacrosanct,
Both who appropriate and who oppose it.
Behold how great a power has made it worthy
Of reverence, beginning from the hour
When Pallas" died to give it sovereignty.[5]
Thou knowest it made in Alba its abode
Three hundred years and upward, till at last
The three to three fought for it yet again.[6]
Thou knowest what it achieved from Sabine wrong
Down to Lucretia's sorrow, in seven kings
O'ercoming round about the neighboring nations;[7]
Thou knowest what it achieved, borne by the Romans
Illustrious against Brennus, against Pyrrhus,
Against the other princes and confederates.[8]
Torquatus thence and Quinctius, who from locks
Unkempt was named, Decii and Fabii,
Received the fame I willingly embalm;[9]
It struck to earth the pride of the Arabians,
Who, following Hannibal, had passed across
The Alpine ridges, Po, from which thou glidest;[10]
Beneath it triumphed while they yet were young
Pompey and Scipio, and to the hill
Beneath which thou wast born it bitter seemed;
Then, near unto the time when heaven had willed
To bring the whole world to its mood serene,
Did Caesar by the will of Rome assume it.
What it achieved from Var unto the Rhine,
Isere beheld and Saone, beheld the Seine,
And every valley whence the Rhone is filled;[11]
What it achieved when it had left Ravenna,
And leaped the Rubicon, was such a flight
That neither tongue nor pen could follow it.[12]
Round towards Spain it wheeled its legions; then
Towards Durazzo, and Pharsalia smote
That to the calid Nile was felt the pain.[13]
Antandros and the Simois, whence it started,
It saw again, and there where Hector lies,
And ill for Ptolemy then roused itself.[14]
From thence it came like lightning upon Juba;
Then wheeled itself again into your West,
Where the Pompeian clarion it heard.[15]
From what it wrought with the next standard-bearer
Brutus and Cassius howl in Hell together,
And Modena and Perugia dolent were;[16]
Still doth the mournful Cleopatra weep
Because thereof, who, fleeing from before it,
Took from the adder sudden and black death.[17]
With him it ran even to the Red Sea shore;
With him it placed the world in so great peace,
That unto Janus was his temple closed.[18]
But what the standard that has made me speak
Achieved before, and after should achieve
Throughout the mortal realm that lies beneath it,
Becometh in appearance mean and dim,
If in the hand of the third Caesar seen
With eye unclouded and affection pure,[19]
Because the living Justice that inspires me
Granted it, in the hand of him I speak of,
The glory of doing vengeance for its wrath.
Now here attend to what I answer thee;
Later it ran with Titus to do vengeance
Upon the vengeance of the ancient sin.[20]
And when the tooth of Lombardy had bitten
The Holy Church, then underneath its wings
Did Charlemagne victorious succor her.[21]
Now hast thou power to judge of such as those
Whom I accused above, and of their crimes,
Which are the cause of all your miseries.
To the public standard one the yellow lilies
Opposes, the other claims it for a party,
So that 'tis hard to see which sins the most.[22]
Let, let the Ghibellines ply their handicraft
Beneath some other standard; for this ever
Ill follows he who it and justice parts.
And let not this new Charles e'er strike it down,
He and his Guelfs, but let him fear the talons
That from a nobler lion stripped the fell.
Already oftentimes the sons have wept
The father's crime; and let him not believe
That God will change His scutcheon for the lilies
This little planet doth adorn itself
With the good spirits that have active been,
That fame and honour might come after them;
And whensoever the desires mount thither,
Thus deviating, must perforce the rays
Of the true love less vividly mount upward.
But in commensuration of our wages
With our desert is portion of our joy,
Because we see them neither less nor greater.
Herein doth living Justice sweeten so
Affection in us, that for evermore
It cannot warp to any iniquity.
Voices diverse make up sweet melodies;
So in this life of ours the seats diverse
Render sweet harmony among these spheres;
And in the compass of this present pearl
Shineth the sheen of Romeo, of whom
The grand and beauteous work was ill rewarded.[23]
But the Provencals who against him wrought,
They have not laughed, and therefore ill goes he
Who makes his hurt of the good deeds of others.
Four daughters, and each one of them a queen,
Had Raymond Berenger, and this for him
Did Romeo, a poor man and a pilgrim;[24]
And then malicious words incited him
To summon to a reckoning this just man,
Who rendered to him seven and five for ten.[25]
Then he departed poor and stricken in years,
And if the world could know the heart he had,
In begging bit by bit his livelihood,
Though much it laud him, it would laud him more."
Footnotes
1. Constantine I (272–337), also known as Constantine the Great, was Roman emperor from AD 306 to 337 and the first Roman emperor to convert to Christianity. He played a pivotal role in elevating the status of Christianity in Rome, the Edict of Milan decrimina lising Christian practice and ceasing Christian persecution. This was a turning point in the Christianisation of the Roman Empire. He founded the city of Constantinople (now Istanbul) and made it the capital of the Empire, which it remained for over a mille nnium.
Constantine the Great is associated with the eagle because it was a traditional symbol of the Roman legions, often used on military standards. However, he famously replaced the eagle with the Christian chi-rho monogram as his emblem after a vision before a crucial battle, marking a significant shift in the symbolism of power in Rome.
In Roman mythology, Lavinia is the daughter of Latinus and Amata, and the last wife of Aeneas. Lavinia is a significant figure in Roman mythology, known as the daughter of King Latinus and the last wife of Aeneas, the Trojan hero. Her marriage to Aeneas sym bolizes the unification of the Trojans and Latins, which is a crucial step in the founding of what would become Rome.
During a sacrifice, Lavinia's hair catches fire, interpreted as an omen that foretells both her future glory and impending war for the Latins. Lavinia is often seen as a symbol of loyalty and the consequences of war. She is also credited with having a son, Silvius, who becomes a legendary king of Alba Longa, further linking her to the lineage of future Roman leaders. Her story reflects the complex ities of fate and personal choice in the context of the founding myths of Rome.
2. This vital canto is the only one in all 100 in the Commedia spoken in one voice, and not the poet's. Dante seems not to want to interfere with the political information being pronounced by Justinian. Its sixth position among 33 cantos in Paradise is als o the same as the sixth cantos in both Inferno and Purgatory, also dealing with political issues and evil machinations of enemies. In Paradise this canto " ... is crucial: it shows by historical example the tenuous but proper connections of the Church and t he Empire."
The factions mentioned here, the Guelphs and the Ghibellines, are familiar to Dante from his own real-life involvement in their political struggles. A Guelph himself, Dante was active during the civil war between the two groups in late 13th-century Florence . The Guelphs triumphed but soon split into two further factions, the Whites and the Blacks. Siding with the White Guelphs, Dante found himself exiled from Florence in 1302 when the Black Guelphs came to power. The vital point is the need to find the lackin g balance between the secular power of the state and the divine authority of the Church. Failure to do so dooms all efforts for peace and stability; it doomed Dante to life and death in exile.
3. Pope Agapetus I (489–536) was the bishop of Rome from 13 May 535 to his death on 22 April 536. His father, Gordianus, was a priest in Rome and he may have been related to two popes, Felix III and Gregory I.
In 536, Agapetus traveled to Constantinople at the behest of King Theodahad of the Ostrogoths and unsuccessfully tried to persuade Emperor Justinian I to call off a Byzantine invasion of the Ostrogoth kingdom. While in Constantinople, Agapetus also deposed the patriarch Anthimus I and personally consecrated his successor who is Menas of Constantinople. Four of Agapetus’ letters from this period have survived: two addressed to Justinian, one to the bishops of Africa, and one to the Bishop of Carthage.
4. Belisarius (500–565) was a military commander of the Byzantine Empire under Emperor Justinian I. Belisarius was instrumental in the reconquest of much of the Mediterranean territory belonging to the former Western Roman Empire, which had been lost less than a century prior. He is considered one of the greatest military commanders of Byzantium and in history generally.
In 562, Belisarius stood trial in Constantinople, having been accused of participating in a conspiracy against Justinian. His case was judged by the prefect of Constantinople, named Prokopius. This may have been his former secretary Procopius of Caesarea, b ut it is unclear. Belisarius was found guilty and remained in house arrest, but not long after, Justinian pardoned him, ordered his release, and restored him to favour at the imperial court, contrary to a later legend that Belisarius had been blinded.
5. Pallas was the Titan god of battle and warcraft. He sided with Zeus during the Titan-War. Pallas' name was derived from the Greek word pallô meaning "to brandish (a spear)". He was vanquished by the goddess Athena who crafted her aigis (a goat-hide arm-guard) from his skin.
The War of the Giants and War of the Titans are synonymous. The immortal Titanes led their mortal brethren, the Gigantes, into battle. During the battle, Pallas is killed. Athena stripped the skin off Pallas and used it to protect her own body during the ba ttle.
Athena, often given the epithet Pallas, is an ancient Greek goddess associated with wisdom, warfare, and handicraft who was later syncretized with the Roman goddess Minerva. Athena was regarded as the patron and protectress of various cities across Greece, particularly the city of Athens, from which she most likely received her name. The Parthenon on the Acropolis of Athens is dedicated to her. Her major symbols include owls, olive trees, snakes, and the Gorgoneion. In art, she is generally depicted wearing a helmet and holding a spear.
6. Alba Longa was an ancient Latin city in Central Italy in the vicinity of Lake Albano in the Alban Hills. The ancient Romans believed it to be the founder and head of the Latin League, before it was destroyed by the Roman Kingdom around the middle of the 7th century BC and its inhabitants were forced to settle in Rome. In legend, Romulus and Remus, founders of Rome, had come from the royal dynasty of Alba Longa, which in Virgil's Aeneid had been the bloodline of Aeneas, a son of Venus.
7. The Sabines were an Italic people who lived in the central Apennine Mountains of the ancient Italian Peninsula, also inhabiting Latium north of the Anio before the founding of Rome.
The Sabines divided into two populations just after the founding of Rome, which is described by Roman legend. The division, however it came about, is not legendary. The population closer to Rome transplanted itself to the new city and united with the preexi sting citizenry, beginning a new heritage that descended from the Sabines but was also Latinized. The second population remained a mountain tribal state, coming finally to war against Rome for its independence along with all the other Italic tribes. Afterwa rds, it became assimilated into the Roman Republic.
According to Roman tradition, Lucretia (died 510 BC), was a noblewoman in ancient Rome. Sextus Tarquinius (Tarquin), the king's son, raped Lucretia, and her subsequent suicide precipitated a rebellion that overthrew the Roman monarchy and led to the transit ion of Roman government from a kingdom to a republic. After Tarquin raped Lucretia, flames of dissatisfaction were kindled over the tyrannical methods of Tarquin's father, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, the last king of Rome. As a result, the prominent familie s instituted a republic, drove the extensive royal family of Tarquin from Rome, and successfully defended the republic against attempted Etruscan and Latin intervention.
8. Brennus was a Gallic chieftain of the Senones. In 387 BC he defeated the Romans at the Battle of the Allia. Later that year, he led an army of Cisalpine Gauls in their attack on Rome and captured most of the city, holding it for several months. Brennus's sa ck of Rome was the only time in 800 years the city was occupied by a non-Roman army before the fall of the city to the Germanic Visigoths in 410 AD.
Pyrrhus (319–272 BC) was a Greek king and statesman of the Hellenistic period. He was king of the Molossians, of the royal Aeacid house, and later he became king of Epirus. He was one of the strongest opponents of early Rome, and had been regarded as one of the greatest generals of antiquity. Several of his victorious battles caused him unacceptably heavy losses, from which the phrase "Pyrrhic victory" was coined.
9. Titus Manlius Imperiosus Torquatus was a famous politician and general of the Roman Republic, of the old gens Manlia. He had an outstanding career, being consul three times, in 347, 344, and 340 BC, and dictator three times, in 353, 349, and 320 BC. He was one of the early heroes of the Republic. As a young military tribune, he defeated a huge Gaul in one of the most famous duels of the Republic, which earned him the epithet Torquatus after the torc he took from the Gaul's body. He was also known for his moral virtues, and his severity became famous after he had his own son executed for disobeying orders in a battle. His life was seen as a model for his descendants, who tried to emulate his heroic deeds, even centuries after his death.
Decii is Publius Decius Mus (died 295 BC), of the plebeian gens Decia, was a Roman consul in the years 312 BC, 308 BC, 297 BC and 295 BC. He was a member of a family that was renowned for sacrificing themselves on the battlefield for Rome.
Titus Quinctius Flamininus (229–174 BC) was a Roman politician and general instrumental in the Roman conquest of Greece. The Quinctii were for a long time allied to the Fabii, one of the most prominent gentes of the Republic. They likely owed them the rare praenomen Caeso—a feature of the early Fabii—through marriages. Likewise, Quinctius was probably married to a Fabia, as Polybius says that Quintus Fabius Buteo, who later served under him in Greece, was his wife's nephew.
In 198 BC Quinctius occupied Anticyra in Phocis and made it his naval yard and his main provisioning port. During the period from 197 to 194 BC, from his seat in Elateia, Quinctius directed the political affairs of the Greek states. In 196 BC Flamininus app eared at the Isthmian Games in Corinth and proclaimed the freedom of the Greek states. He was fluent in Greek and was a great admirer of Greek culture, and the Greeks hailed him as their liberator; they minted coins with his portrait, and in some cities he was deified. According to Livy, this was the act of an unselfish Philhellene. With his Greek allies, Quinctius plundered Sparta, before returning to Rome in triumph along with thousands of freed slaves, 1,200 of whom were freed from Achaea, having been take n captive in Italy and sold in Greece during the Second Punic War.
10. Hannibal (247–183 BC) was a Carthaginian general and statesman who commanded the forces of Carthage in their battle against the Roman Republic during the Second Punic War. Hannibal lived during a period of great tension in the Mediterranean Basin, triggered by the emergence of the Roman Republic as a great power with its defeat of Carthage in the First Punic War. Hannibal avenged himself as Carthage prevailed, symbolized by the pledge that Hannibal made to his father to "never be a friend of Rome".
In 218 BC Hannibal attacked Saguntum (modern Sagunto, Spain), an ally of Rome in Hispania, sparking the Second Punic War. Hannibal invaded Italy by crossing the Alps with North African war elephants. In his first few years in Italy, as the leader of a Carth aginian and partially Celtic army, he won a succession of victories at the Battle of Ticinus, Trebia, Lake Trasimene, and Cannae, inflicting heavy losses on the Romans.
11. Julius Caesar is related to the Var River through his military campaigns during the Gallic Wars, where he sought to secure the eastern borders of Roman territories. The Var River, located in modern-day France, was part of the region Caesar aimed to control as he expanded Roman influence in Gaul.
Julius Caesar built two bridges across the river in 55 BC and 53 BC. These bridges were significant for demonstrating Roman engineering prowess and securing the eastern border of Gaul against Germanic tribes.
Julius Caesar waged a Battle of the Isère River in 121 BC, which resulted in a Roman victory and the annexation of the Rhône Valley. This battle helped establish Roman control in the region, paving the way for further conquests in Gaul.
Julius Caesar fought at the Saône River during the Battle of Bibracte, which took place near the Saône in 58 BC. This battle was significant in establishing Roman control over Gaul, including the region around the Saône.
12. Julius Caesar was a prominent Roman general and statesman who played a crucial role in the events leading to the demise of the Roman Republic. In 49 BC, he faced political opposition in Rome, particularly from Pompey and the Senate, who sought to limit his power.
The Rubicon River is a shallow river in northeastern Italy, marking the boundary between Caesar's province of Cisalpine Gaul and Italy. Crossing this river was significant because it represented a legal boundary; under Roman law, a general was prohibite d from leading an army out of his province.
In early January 49 BC, Caesar was stationed in Ravenna, a city near the Rubicon. Facing pressure from the Senate to disband his army, he decided to take a bold step. On January 10, he crossed the Rubicon with his legion, declaring his intent to march i nto Italy. This act was a direct challenge to the Senate and initiated the Roman Civil War.
Caesar's crossing of the Rubicon is famously associated with the phrase "alea iacta est" (the die is cast), symbolizing an irreversible decision. This bold move led to his eventual rise to power, but also set off a series of conflicts that would change the course of Roman history.
Julius Caesar, the Roman dictator, was assassinated on the Ides of March (15 March), 44 BC, by a group of senators during a Senate session at the Curia of Pompey, located within the Theatre of Pompey in Rome. The conspirators, numbering between 60 and 70 in dividuals and led by Marcus Junius Brutus, Gaius Cassius Longinus, and Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus, stabbed Caesar approximately 23 times. They justified the act as a preemptive defense of the Roman Republic, asserting that Caesar's accumulation of lifelo ng political authority—including his perpetual dictatorship and other honors—threatened republican traditions.
13. Durazzo, known in ancient times as Dyrrhachium, was a significant city during Julius Caesar's era. It served as a vital logistics hub for Pompey during Caesar's civil war. The city is located in modern-day Albania.
The Battle of Dyrrhachium: In 48 BC, Caesar attempted to capture Dyrrhachium to disrupt Pompey's supply lines. The battle lasted from April to July and ended in a Pompeian victory. Caesar besieged Pompey's camp but was ultimately forced to retreat after Pompey broke through his forti fied lines.
Dyrrhachium's location made it crucial for controlling the Adriatic Sea and facilitating military movements. After the battle, Pompey pursued Caesar into Thessaly, leading to further confrontations, including the decisive Battle of Pharsalus.
Battle of Pharsalus is the decisive engagement in the Roman civil war (49–45 BC) between Julius Caesar and Pompey the Great. After failing to subdue his enemies at Dyrrhachium, Dürres, Albania, Caesar clashed with Pompey somewhere near Pharsalus, Fársala, G reece. Although Caesar was greatly outnumbered, his veteran legions successfully routed Pompey’s diverse but undisciplined levies. Pompey’s flight to Egypt and subsequent murder handed the ultimate victory to Caesar.
14. Antandros is an ancient city located near the Troad region, close to the site of the Trojan War. Simois River, a river in the Troad, which flows from Mount Ida and merges with the Scamander River near Troy. The Simois River is noted for its role in the battles of the Trojan War, where it is depicted as a significant geographical feature.
Antandros, being in proximity to the Simois, would have been influenced by the river's mythological significance and its role in the narratives surrounding the Trojan War. The Simois River is personified as a river-god in Greek mythology, and it is described as supporting the Trojans during the war.
Hector was a Trojan prince, a hero and the greatest warrior for Troy during the Trojan War. He is a major character in Homer's Iliad, where he leads the Trojans and their allies in the defense of Troy, killing countless Greek warriors. He is ultimately killed in single combat by the Greek hero Achilles, who proceeds to drag his dead body around the city of Troy behind his chariot.
Claudius Ptolemy (100–170s AD) was a Greco-Roman mathematician, astronomer, astrologer, geographer, and music theorist who wrote about a dozen scientific treatises, three of which were important to later Byzantine, Islamic, and Western European science. The first was his astronomical treatise now known as the Almagest, originally entitled Mathēmatikḗ Syntaxis (Μαθηματικὴ Σύνταξις, 'Mathematical Treatise'). The second is the Geography, which is a thorough discussion on maps and the geographic knowledge o f the Greco-Roman world. The third is the astrological treatise in which he attempted to adapt horoscopic astrology to the Aristotelian natural philosophy of his day. This is sometimes known as the Apotelesmatika (Αποτελεσματικά, 'On the Effects') but more commonly known as the Tetrábiblos (from the Koine Greek meaning 'four books'; Latin: Quadripartitum).
15. Juba I was a king of Numidia who allied with Pompey during the Roman Civil War. He became an ally of Pompey partly due to gratitude for Pompey restoring his father to the throne. Juba I became hostile towards Julius Caesar due to a personal insult and political tensions, leading him to support Pompey against Caesar. Juba II of Mauretania
Juba II was the son of Juba I and inherited his father's legacy. After his father's defeat and death, Juba II was taken to Rome, where he was raised in the household of Julius Caesar and later Augustus. Juba II's reign in Mauretania was marked by his loyalty to Rome and promotion of Greco-Roman culture, contrasting with his father's opposition to Roman authority.
While Juba I and Juba II were not directly related to Pompey by blood, Juba I's alliance with Pompey during the civil war established a significant political connection. Juba II's later relationship with Rome was shaped by his father's legacy and his upbrin ging in a Roman context.
Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (106–48 BC), known as Pompey or Pompey the Great, was a Roman general and statesman who was prominent in the last decades of the Roman Republic. As a young man, he was a partisan and protégé of the dictator Sulla, after whose deat h he achieved much military and political success himself.
16. Marcus Junius Brutus (85–42 BC) was a Roman politician, orator, and the most famous of the assassins of Julius Caesar. After being adopted by a relative, he used the name Quintus Servilius Caepio Brutus, which was retained as his legal name. He is often referred to simply as Brutus.
Early in his political career, Brutus opposed Pompey, who was responsible for the desth ofvBrutus' father's. He also was close to Julius Caesar. However, Caesar's attempts to evade accountability in the law courts put him at greater odds with his opponents in the Roman elite and the senate. Brutus eventually came to oppose Caesar and sided with Pompey against Caesar's forces during the ensuing civil war (49–45 BC). Pompey was defeated at the Battle of Pharsalus in 48, after which Brutus surrendered to Caesar, who granted him amnesty.
Lucius Cassius Dio (165–235), also known as Dio Cassius, was a Roman historian and senator of maternal Greek origin. He published 80 volumes of the history of ancient Rome, beginning with the arrival of Aeneas in Italy. The volumes documented the subseq uent founding of Rome (753 BC), the formation of the Republic (509 BC), and the creation of the Empire (27 BC) up until 229 AD, during the reign of Severus Alexander. Written in Koine Greek over 22 years, Dio's work covers approximately 1,000 years of histo ry.
Modena is a city and municipality on the south side of the Po Valley, in the Province of Modena, in the Emilia-Romagna region of northern Italy. Modena was already in existence in the 3rd century BC, for in 218 BC, during Hannibal's invasion of Italy, the Boii revolted and laid siege to the city. Livy described it as a fortified citadel where Roman magistrates took shelter. The outcome of the siege is not known, but the city was most likely abandoned after Hannibal's arrival.
Perugia is the capital city of Umbria in central Italy, crossed by the River Tiber. The city is located about 164 km north of Rome and 148 km southeast of Florence. It covers a high hilltop and part of the valleys around the area. In 216 and 205 BC, it assisted Rome in the Second Punic War, but afterwards it is not mentioned until 41–40 BC, when Lucius Antonius took refuge there, and was defeated by Octavian after a long siege, and its senators sent to their deaths. A number of lead bullets used by slingers have been found in and around the city. The city was burnt, we are told, with the exception of the temples of Vulcan and Juno—the massive Etruscan terrace-walls, naturally, can hardly have suffered at all—and the town, with the te rritory for a mile round, was allowed to be occupied by whoever chose. It must have been rebuilt almost at once, for several bases for statues exist, inscribed "Augusto sacr(um) Perusia restituta"; but it did not become a colonia, until 251–253 AD, when it was resettled as Colonia Vibia Augusta Perusia, under the emperor Trebonianus Gallus.
17. Cleopatra VII Thea Philopator (Greek: Κλεοπάτρα Θεά Φιλοπάτωρ,'Cleopatra father-loving goddess'; 69–12 BC) was Queen of the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt from 51 to 30 BC, and the last active Hellenistic pharaoh. A member of the Ptolemaic dynasty, she was a de scendant of its founder Ptolemy I Soter, a Macedonian Greek general and companion of Alexander the Great. Her first language was Koine Greek, and she is the only Ptolemaic ruler known to have learned the Egyptian language, among several others. After her de ath, Egypt became a province of the Roman Empire, marking the end of the Hellenistic period in the Mediterranean, which had begun during the reign of Alexander (336–323 BC).
Cleopatra was the last active ruler of the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt and had significant relationships with key Roman figures, notably Julius Caesar and Mark Antony. Her alliances with these leaders were crucial in shaping the political landscape of both E gypt and Rome during her reign, ultimately leading to her downfall and the incorporation of Egypt into the Roman Empire.
Cleopatra met Julius Caesar in 48 BC when he arrived in Egypt during a civil war. Their alliance was both romantic and political. Cleopatra sought Caesar's support to regain her throne, which she successfully did after her brother Ptolemy XIII was defeated. She bore Caesar a son, Ptolemy XV Caesar, known as Caesarion.
After Caesar's assassination in 44 BC, Cleopatra aligned with Mark Antony, one of Caesar's supporters. Their relationship produced three children and further solidified her influence in Roman affairs. Cleopatra and Antony's partnership was viewed with suspi cion in Rome, leading to political tensions.
Battle of Actium (31 BC): This naval battle between Antony and Cleopatra's forces and Octavian's (Caesar's heir) fleet marked a turning point. The defeat of Antony and Cleopatra led to their eventual downfall.
18. Janus is the god of beginnings, gates, transitions, time, duality, doorways, passages, frames, and endings. He is usually depicted as having two faces. The month of January is named for Janus (Ianuarius).
Janus presided over the beginning and ending of conflict, and hence war and peace. The gates of the Temple of Janus in Rome were opened in time of war and closed to mark the arrival of peace. As a god of transitions, he had functions pertaining to birth and to journeys and exchange, and in his association with Portunus, a similar harbor and gateway god, he was concerned with travelling, trading, and shipping.
19. The third Caesar, or Roman emperor, is Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (12-41), commonly known as Caligula. He ruled from AD 37 until his assassination in AD 41. Caligula is famous for his erratic and tyrannical rule as Roman emperor, marked by extreme cruelty, extravagant spending, and bizarre actions, such as allegedly planning to make his horse a consul. His reign, though brief, has been characterized by tales of madness and excess, which have persisted for centuries.
Caligula was assassinated in 41 AD after just four years in power, which added to his legacy as a tragic figure in Roman history. His death was orchestrated by members of the Praetorian Guard, highlighting the instability of his rule.
20. Titus Caesar Vespasianus (39–81 AD) was Roman emperor from 79 to 81 AD. A member of the Flavian dynasty, Titus succeeded his father Vespasian upon his death, becoming the first Roman emperor ever to succeed his biological father.
Before becoming emperor, Titus gained renown as a military commander, serving under his father in Judea during the First Jewish-Roman War. The campaign came to a brief halt with the death of emperor Nero in 68 AD, launching Vespasian's bid for the imperial power during the Year of the Four Emperors. When Vespasian was declared Emperor on 1 July 69 AD, Titus was left in charge of ending the Jewish rebellion. In 70 AD, he besieged and captured Jerusalem, and destroyed the city and the Second Temple. For this ac hievement Titus was awarded a triumph; the Arch of Titus commemorates his victory and still stands today.
21. Lombardy has historical significance in the Catholic Church, particularly as a region where early Christian communities developed and where notable events in church history occurred. It is also home to several important religious sites and institutions, inc luding the Diocese of Milan, which has played a central role in Catholicism in Italy.
Charlemagne (748–814) was King of the Franks from 768, King of the Lombards from 774, and Emperor of what is now known as the Carolingian Empire from 800. He united most of Western and Central Europe and was the first recognised emperor to rule from the wes t after the fall of the Western Roman Empire approximately three centuries earlier. Charlemagne's reign was marked by political and social changes that had lasting influence on Europe throughout the Middle Ages.
22. The symbol used by the Guelphs of Italy in the 12th century was a white lily on a red background. This emblem represented their allegiance to the papacy during the conflicts with the Ghibellines, who supported the Holy Roman Emperor.
In the 12th century in Italy, the yellow lily, known as the fleur-de-lis, was used by the imperial party in Florence, known as the Ghibellines. This symbol was associated with their support for the Holy Roman Empire against the papal-backed Guelphs.
After the Guelphs defeated the Ghibellines in Florence in 1250, the colors were inverted to create the Guelph flag, which featured a red lily on a white field. This change marked the Guelphs' victory and the Ghibellines' exile from the city.
23. Romeo di Villeneuve was a political advisor to Raymond Berenger IV, Count of Provence, and he played a significant role in arranging marriages for Berenger's four daughters, each of whom married into royal families. However, despite his contributions, R omeo faced envy and was unjustly maligned, leading to his downfall and exile.
24. Ramon Berenguer IV or V (1198–1245) was a member of the House of Barcelona who ruled as count of Provence and Forcalquier. He was the first count of Provence to live in the county in more than one hundred years. During the minority of a previous count in 11 44–1161, the regency was exercised by Ramon Berenguer IV de Barcelona, who is sometimes counted among the counts of Provence, which has led to varied numbering of the counts of Provence named Ramon Berenguer. This Ramon Berenguer was the fourth of his name to be a reigning count of Provence.
His daughters were:
Margaret of Provence (1221–1295), wife of Louis IX, King of France
Eleanor of Provence (1223–1291), wife of Henry III, King of England
Sanchia of Provence (1225–1261), wife of Richard, King of the Romans, brother of the King of England
Beatrice of Provence (1229–1267), wife of Charles I, King of Sicily, brother of the King of France
25. The numbers 7, 5, and 10 in relation to Ramon Berenguer V may refer to his connections and disputes with other counts, as well as the dowry for his daughter's marriage. Specifically, he was involved in border disputes with the counts of Toulouse (7), he is sometimes counted as the fifth in a series of counts named Ramon Berenguer (5), and the marriage dowry for his daughter was ten thousand silver marks (10).
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